OH Magazine

Grammar and Writing Review

(Adapted from http://grammar.uoregon.edu)

NOTE: I have changed the information here where it differs from our style choices as a department, so while this information came from the Web site listed above, you will find differences if you actually look there. If you are writing or editing for us, you need to make yourself responsible for knowing these basics. We all make mistakes, but we also all have gaps in our knowledge. Work to fill yours!

Topics:

Commonly misused words

Clarity

Conciseness

Parallelism

Punctuation Basics

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COMMONLY MISUSED WORD LIST

affect: (verb) means to influence. The flood will affect the harvest.
effect: (almost always a noun) means "result." The effect of the flood was frightening.
effect: (as a verb) means to cause. He will effect many changes in the agricultural rules.

allude: to make an indirect reference to something. President Clinton alluded to the problems of past Republican administrations when defending his record.
(Note: To refer to something means to mention it directly.)
elude: to escape or avoid detection. Newt Gingrich eluded the fashion police.

among: implies a "distribution" involving three or more persons or object that have no explicit relationship. The lottery money was divided among Oregon's five lucky winners.
between: refers to position or action of two persons or objects, and is also used if there is a "definite relation" between persons or objects. Between you and me, this building will never be completed. Negotiations have broken down between architects, builders and the owner.

anxious: afraid or worried. Sally was anxious about the championship game.
eager: excited. Sally was eager to play in the championship game.

accept: to receive. Gail Devers accepted the gold medal.
except: to exclude. Every swimmer received an Olympic medal except for Janet Evans.

aid: assistance. Students often ask their parents for aid.
aide: an assistant. A congressional aide said the senator was unavailable for comment.

because of: shows cause and effect. Because of a tuition increase, students were angry.
due to: use only with a linking verb. The riot at Johnson Hall was due to a tuition increase.

because: gives reason or cause for something. The bridge was closed because the river flooded.
since: denotes a period of time. The bridge has been closed since the river flooded.

compose: made up of other things, to create or put together (e.g., parts, ingredients). The car is composed of many mechanical and electrical systems.
comprise: takes in, includes or embraces other things, contains. The United States comprises 50 states.
Note: The whole comprises the parts -- the whole is never comprised of the parts.

compared to: to liken one thing to another type or category of things as in a metaphor. He compared playing goalie to being a drill sergeant.
compared with: to examine similarities and differences within the same type or category. We compared Big Macs with Whoppers.

convince: to be secure about a decision or principle. Jody Runge is convinced the Ducks will win the game.
persuade: to induce someone to do something or embrace an idea. Jody Runge persuaded the referee to call a foul.

complement: (noun or verb) denotes completeness or the process of supplementing something. Susan's Doc Marten's complement her leather jacket.
compliment: (noun or verb) denotes praise. Sean was proud of the compliments on his writing.

continual: a steady repetition. The senator's drinking was the source of continual rumors.
continuous: uninterrupted, unbroken. Ahead of them was a continuous stretch of desert.

discreet: prudent, circumspect. British royalty seem to have forgotten how to be discreet.
discrete: detached, separate. There have been six discrete incidents of plagiarism this year.

elicit: (verb) to bring out or draw forth. Her lecture on prison reform elicited a strong reaction.
illicit: (adjective) illegal or unlawful. Bob Packwood's illicit actions led to his downfall.

enormity: wickedness. The enormity of the crime was revealed in Technicolor.
enormousness: very great in size. The enormousness of the national debt boggles the mind.

fewer: refers to a number of indivdual items. Lisa made fewer free throws than Cindy.
less: refers to bulk, amount, sum, or period of time. Because of her injury, she had less time on the court than the other players

farther: physical distance. Sue kicked the soccer ball farther than any of her teammates.
further: extension of time or degree. The reporter will look further into the president's death.

hanged: (verb; conjugated hang, hanged and hanged) refers to people. The State of Oregon hanged the murderer for his crimes.
hung: (same verb; conjugated hang, hung and hung) refers to objects. The University of Oregon athletic department hung photos of women basketball players in the halls of Mac Court.

hangar: a building. The remnants of the plane are in the hangar.
hanger: something you hung your shirt on. There are never enough hangers in my closet.

if: a conjunction meaning "in the event that" or "on the condition that." If the Ducks keep playing well, they may play in post season games.
whether: a conjunction meaning "in case," "if it happens that" or "if it is so that." Bob Rodman asked whether the Ducks had won.

illusion: an unreal or false impression. The commercial created the illusion that the politician had told the truth about his past.
allusion: an indirect reference. Packwood made an allusion to his critics in Oregon.
elusive: tending to elude capture, perception or understanding. An informative, intelligent political commercial has proved elusive.

like: a preposition used to compare nouns or pronouns. Nicole runs like the wind.
as if: a conjunction used to introduce clauses. Nicole runs as if her life depends on it.

imply: to suggest or hint. Perot implied that he would run for president.
infer: to conclude from evidence. Reporters inferred that Perot would run as a third-party candidate.

media: (plural) in the sense of mass communication. The media are pressing for access to more government documents.
medium: (singular of media) AM radio may be the medium that has changed the most in the last five years.

more than: generally refers to relationships between figures and amounts. Tuition has increased more than 18 percent in the last two years.
over: generally refers to spatial relationships. The helicopter flew over the volcano.

notorious: to be widely and unfavorably known. Ted Bundy was a notorious killer.
famous: to be widely known. The Miami Dolphins signed the famous coach, Jimmy Johnson.

proven: use only as an adjective. This is a proven method to get good grades.
proved: past participle for the verb prove, which means to establish the truth of something. The game against Washington proved the Ducks' defense had a lot to learn.

regardless: without regard or unmindful. The couple hikes every weekend regardless of the weather.
irregardless: a dreaded double negative that has been snubbed by dictionaries nationwide.

reluctant: unwilling to act. Susan is reluctant to go to the dentist.
reticent: means unwilling to speak. Steven is reticent in public places.

to: a preposition meaning (among other things) as compared with. President Clinton compared the nation's debt to a swelling balloon.
with: a preposition meaning in the company of or alongside of. Susan went with her sister to the meeting.

under way: two words in virtually all uses. Construction on Allen Hall is well under way.
underway: Use only as an adjective before a noun in the nautical sense. In other words, forget about it.

under: physically underneath. Several people sleep under the bridge at night.
less than: a lesser quantity or amount. I can go to the concert if the tickets are less than $5.00.

Sources: "Grammar for Journalists," E.L. Callihan
The American Heritage Dictionary
The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual
"When Words Collide," Kessler and McDonald.

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CLARITY

As writers, our words are our tools. Therefore, with every word, phrase, clause and sentence we write, we should be asking, "Is this the right tool for the job?" Is the way we have written a sentence the clearest, most concise way to express what we are trying to say?

There are several danger zones to be mindful of as we are writing for clarity, conciseness and coherence.

WORD CHOICE

The words we choose should communicate just what we mean to communicate--nothing more; nothing less. As noted in "When Words Collide," choosing the correct verb is a matter of grammar; but choosing the right verb is a matter of conciseness and clarity.

• Avoid UP
• • Bob appointed his uncle to head up the committee.
  • Bob appointed his uncle to head the committee.
  • The negligent father finally faced up to his responsibilities.
  • The negligent father finally faced his responsibilities.
  • His incessant questions only served to slow up the meeting.
  • His incessant questions only served to slow the meeting.
• Avoid those verbs requiring "up" to complete their meaning. These verbs are not wrong; but they are weak.
• • She suspected the student was making up the excuse.
  • She suspected the student was fabricating the excuse.
  • Business has been picking up since the street opened.
  • Business has improved since the street opened.

"VERBIZING NOUNS"

• Adding the suffix "-ize" to any noun is usually unnecessary, and it often serves to confuse the reader. Nonetheless, some "-ize" words are useful and provide a particular meaning.
• Before tacking "-ize" onto a noun, subject it to these three tests.
• 1. Is it listed in the dictionary as an acceptable word?
  2. Does it have a unique meaning? (e.g. pasteurize)
  3. Does it have a sound that it not displeasing?

THAT

• That serves a range of grammatical functions.
• • Adjective: That man is going to fall off of his bike.
  • Demonstrative pronoun: That is the last thing he will do.
  • Relative pronoun: Harvard is the university that he wants to attend.
  • Conjunction: My brother admitted that he is always wrong.
• As a pronoun & conjunction, thatcan often be eliminated.
• • My brother admitted he is always wrong.
  • Harvard is the university he wants to attend.
• Other times removing that requires a sentence be re-written.
• • She treasured the boat that was built by her father.
  • She treasured the boat her father built.
• To determine if that is necessary, ask these two questions:

1. Can that be eliminated with no change in the meaning of the sentence?

2. Can the clause introduced by that be expressed more concisely?

MISPLACED WORDS

A modifier must point directly and clearly to what it modifies. Place the modifier next to or as close as possible to what it is modifying.

Problem modifiers: only, nearly, almost, just, scarcely, even, hardly and merely.

• ONLY
• • Only the coach lead the team to victory.
    (No one else can lead them)
  • The coach can only lead the team to victory.
    (The coach can't do anything more than lead them.)
  • The coach can lead only the team to victory.
    (The coach can't lead anyone else.)
  • Just the swimmer missed her chance to compete in the race.
    (No one else missed a chance.)
• JUST
• • The swimmer just missed her chance to compete in the race.
    (The swimmer barely or recently missed her chance)
  • The swimmer missed her chance just to compete in the race.
    (The swimmer missed her chance simply to compete)
  • The swimmer missed her chance to compete in just the race.
    (The swimmer missed only once chance to compete: the race. Or she missed the chance to limit her competing to one event: the race.)

MISPLACED MODIFIERS

• Phrases and clauses should also be placed next to or near what they modify.
• • Several of the children were confused by math in the class.
  • Rising to their feet, the fight song roared from the fans.
  • Joe found a twenty-dollar bill walking home.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

• A modifier "dangles" when what it is supposed to modify is not part of the sentence.
• • Before going on vacation, the bills need to be paid.
  • After cutting the grass, the garden was weeded.

SPLITTING AUXILIARY AND MAIN VERBS AND SPLITTING INFINITIVES

• Split verbs lead to incoherence. In most cases, it is best to keep auxiliary verbs next to the main verb and to avoid splitting infinitives.
• • The students who have been, for more than a week, waiting for tickets were disappointed with the news.
  • The burglar was, as far as the detectives could determine, hiding somewhere in the building.
• Splitting infinitives, though common practice is grammatically incorrect and makes for sloppy writing.
• • For the information to truly be valuable, he will need to verify the source.
  • Sally intended to fully explain the proposal, but she missed the meeting.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

• A mood of the verb (to be) that expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact or highly improbable (a wish).
• It is also used to express: DOUBTS, UNCERTAINTIES, REGRETS, DESIRES.
• With subjunctive mood, use WERE instead of WAS.
• • If I were rich, I would still teach grammar.
  • The students looked at me as if I were insane.
  • She wishes she were home in bed instead of in class.
  • BUT: --If the ex-convict was involved in the robbery, he
    probably has left town.

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CONCISENESS

Make your words count. Don't muddy your writing with jargon, unclear construction and repetition.

REDUNDANCIES AND WORDINESS

Mutual cooperation	cooperation
Completely destroyed	destroyed
Could care less	couldn't care less
consensus of opinion	consensus
refer back	refer
thinking to myself	thinking
needless to say	then why say it?
at the present time	now
despite the fact that	although

INTENSIFIERS

Avoid overused intensifiers such as: Very, Really, Truly, So, Completely, Totally, Positively, Perfectly

• Re-write for conciseness and description. For example:

very hungry	famished
really tired	exhausted
perfectly happy	content
so silly	ridiculous
truly angry	irate

 

STRUCTURAL DIFFICULTIES

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

• A group of words lacking one or more of the following: a subject, a predicate, a complete thought (e.g, a dependent clause).
• • Although he passed the test.
  • "Now his concern is to be a normally functioning human being again. Without the headaches, dizziness, memory loss and lethargy that have been part of his life for too long."

 

RUN-ON SENTENCE

• Lacks proper punctuation
  e.g, Comma Splice:
  • The professor dismissed the class, the students cheered.
• Options to fix run-ons:
  
  1) Create two sentences
  
  2) Use a semi-colon
  
  3) Use a coordinating conjunction

 

OVERSUBORDINATED SENTENCE

• Caused by several dependent clauses or one long dependent clause at the start of a sentence. Problem: delays main idea.
  • Even though I felt sick and discouraged at the thought of taking the exam, I passed the LSDT.

 

PASSIVE & ACTIVE VOICE

• The "VOICE" of a sentence indicates the form of the verb.
• PASSIVE VOICE: The subject is acted upon by the verb.
  • The test was passed by the student.
  • The meeting was led by the president.
  • The play was canceled.
• ACTIVE VOICE: The subject is performing an action.
  
  Think: Subject-Verb-Object
  • The student passed the test.
  • The president led the meeting.
  • The director canceled the play.
• NOTE: Use of the verb to be (e.g., is, was) does not necessarily mean the passive voice.
  • She was managing the store. (active)
  • The store was managed by her. (passive)
  • She was tired. (indicative)
• TIP: Avoid unnecessary introductory phrases and clauses
  • It has been shown by numerous studies that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.
  • Numerous studies have shown that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT.

 

CORRECTING PASSIVE VOICE

• Find the verb in the sentence
• Ask who or what is performing the action.
• Construct the sentence to that the "actor" (subject) performs the action.
  • Our conclusion was ignored by the committee.
    
    Verb: ignored
    Actor: committee
    Re-write: The committee ignored out conclusions.
  • The infant was rescued from the blaze by his mother.
    
    Verb: rescued
    Actor: mother
    Re-write: The infant's mother rescued him from the blaze.
    
    If we write it:
    His mother rescued the infant from the blaze.
    "His" is unclear as a pronoun reference.

WHEN PASSIVE VOICE IS JUSTIFIED

• The recipient of the action is more important (prominent) than the performer of the action.
• • President Clinton was heckled by an unidentified comedian posing as a journalist.
• The actor or performer of the action is unknown, difficult to identify or irrelevant.
• • The gift was damaged during shipping.

NOTE: In this case, the indicative mood (was) is used to state merely a condition or realistic explanation, not an implausible situation.

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PARALLEL STRUCTURE (PARALLELISM)

• Don't mix elements in a phrase or series.
  • He enjoys books, movies and driving his car. (NO)
  • He enjoys reading books, watching movies and driving his car. (YES)
• Don't mix verbals (e.g., gerunds and infinitives).
  • He believes in using force and then to resort to diplomacy only if all else fails. (NO)
  • He believes in using force and then resorting to diplomacy only if all else fails. (YES)
• Don't mix tenses or voice.
  • Workers who were consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and had lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)
  • Workers who are consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and have lower rates of absenteeism. (NO)
• Don't mix singular and plural subjects.
  • One should study; students should know that. (NO)
  • Students should know that they should study. (YES)
• Don't use a dependent clause inappropriately.
  • The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian Physics and that critical thinking is at the heart of scientific study. (NO)
  • The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian physics and the importance of critical thinking in scientific study. (YES)
• Be consistent with grammatical patterns in a sentence (e.g., verb-adjective-noun pattern of three phrases)
  • He vowed to decrease federal taxes, increase social services and strengthen foreign relations.

 

WORDS THAT ARE ALWAYS A SINGULAR SUBJECT

First it might be helpful to remember that the singular form of all verbs except to be and to have is formed by adding "s" or "es." For example: dives, runs, answers and crashes, presses and tosses.

• When used as a subject or adjective these indefinite pronouns are always singular and, therefore, they take singular verbs.

another	anybody	anyone	anything	each	each one
either	every	everybody	everything	much
neither	nobody	no one	nothing	one	other
somebody	something	someone

?         These pronouns may be used as subjects, and they take a singular verb.

When they are used as adjectives, the noun they modify always takes a singular verb

• The number--when used as subject of a sentence (an organized unit)?takes a singular verb.

• Subjects that stand for definable units of money, measurement, time, organization, food and medical problems always take singular verbs.

• Singular subject followed by phrases such as together with and as well as take singular verb.

• When all parts of a compound subject are singular and refer to same person or thing.

• When the subject is followed by the phrase "the only one of."

WORDS THAT ARE ALWAYS PLURAL SUBJECT

• When a compound subject is joined by a coordinating conjunction (and), it always takes a plural verb if the subjects refer to different persons or things and if the subject cannot be considered a unit.

• Indefinite pronouns (both, few, many, several) always take plural verbs.

• "A number" as the subject of a sentence always takes plural verbs.

• Certain plural subjects always take plural verbs.

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PUNCTUATION BASICS

 

THE COMMA

There are 11 simple rules that govern the comma in AP style. Be aware that this is a particular style. Other styles have different rules for comma use.

1) When the last item in a series is connected by a coordinating conjunction (e.g., and, or, but, nor, for, yet, so), do not use a comma before the conjunction.

2) Use a comma to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction.

3) Remember: A compound predicate (two or more verbs serving the same subject) does not need a comma.

4) Use commas following introductory clauses and phrases and other clauses and phrases that would be confusing without commas.

5) Use commas to set off non-restrictive (non essential) clauses, phrases and modifiers from the rest of the sentence.

6) Use commas to separate descriptive modifiers of equal rank if the coordinating conjunction is missing.

Tip: If you can use the adjectives interchangeably and can successfully insert a conjunction and between them, they require a comma.

7) Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions and nominatives of direct address.

8) Use commas to set off participial phrases that modify some part of the independent clause.

9) Do not use a comma to separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction. Do not use a comma to introduce a subordinate clause.

10) Do not use a comma to separate a reflexive pronoun.

11) Do not use a comma to precede a partial quotation.

THE SEMICOLON

1) When each item in a series includes commas, a semicolon is used to separate the items.

2) The semicolon may be used to separate closely related independent clauses that are not connected by conjunctions.

3) Hence, however, indeed, moreover, still, therefore, thus are conjunctive adverbs. They belong to the second sentence and are not coordinating conjunctions. When used after a semicolon they are followed by commas.

 

THE COLON

1) When the colon is used to introduce a complete sentence, the first word of that sentence should be capitalized.

2) But when the colon is used to introduce a word, phrase or clause that is not a complete sentence, the first word following the colon should not be capitalized.

3) Use a colon to introduce a two-sentence (or longer) quotation. Using a comma instead of a colon is incorrect.

4) Use a colon to introduce a list of items.

5) A colon is unnecessary if you are introducing a short list without the words "the following."

 

THE DASH

• Use a dash to notify the reader of a surprising element at the end of a sentence.
• • The trapper gave his grandson a coat made of fur?skunk fur.
• Use a dash to announce a list, restatement or an amplification.
• • The waiter's first recommendation?a sea bass baked in a hazelnut crust?was sold out.
  • Her first car?a pink and white pinto with leopard-skin seat covers?should be in a museum.
  • He had worked hard?did his coach realize how hard??to improve his free throw shooting.
• Don't use a dash for a simple appositive that doesn't require a dramatic shift.
• • Her first car, a Dodge Dart, is still running.

 

THE HYPHEN

Smaller than a dash, the hyphen brings words together rather than setting them apart.

• Use a hyphen to form compound modifiers.
  
  COMPOUND MODIFIER:
  
  The Definition: Two or more words are acting as a single modifier for a noun.
  
  The Clue: They belong together. They are not part of a series that can separately describe the noun.
• • I think Steve is a well-intentioned volunteer.
  • Steve is a helpful, supportive volunteer.
  • The 20-year-old man was too young to buy alcohol.

The Rule: If you can put "and" between the modifiers and it makes sense, it is not a compound modifier.

The Exception:If the modifier includes an "-ly" adverb, these words alone indicate that they are part of a compound modifier, so a hyphen is redundant.

The Caveat: But be careful to distinguish between a compound modifier and the same words not used as a modifier.

 

QUOTATION MARKS

1) Set off explanatory expressions with commas. In this example, attribution ("the mayor said") is inserted between the dependent clause ("If we ...") and the independent clause, ("we will")

2) Place periods and commas within quotation marks.

3) Place a question mark inside quotation marks if the quotation is a question. But if the quoted material is not a question, put the question mark outside the quotation marks.

4) Semicolons are placed outside quotation marks.

5) A colon goes outside the quotation marks unless it is part of the quotation itself.

 

APOSTROPHES & POSSESSIVE NOUNS

If a singular noun does not end in s, add 's

• The delivery boy's truck was blocking the driveway.
• Bob Dole's concession speech was stoic and dignified.
• The student's attempts to solve the problem were rewarded

If a singular proper noun ends in s, add an apostrophe.

• Chris' exam scores were higher than any other students.

If a noun is plural in form and ends in an s, add an apostrophe only, even if the intended meaning of the word is singular (such as mathematics and measles.)

• The instructor asked us to analyze ten poems' meanings.
• The dog catcher had to check all of the dogs' tags.
• It is hard to endure the Marine Corps' style of discipline.

If a plural noun does not end in s, add 's

• Many activists in Oregon are concerned with children's rights.
• Everyone was disappointed with the American media's coverage of the Olympics in Atlanta.

If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the possessive closest to the noun.

• Clinton and Gore's campaign was successful.
• She was worried about her mother and father's marriage.
• Beavis and Butthead's appeal is absolutely lost on me.

If there is a separate possession of the same noun, use the correct possessive form for each word.

• The owner's and the boss's excuses were equally false.
• The dog's and the cats' owners were in school when the fire broke out.

In a compound construction, use the correct possessive form for the word closest to the noun. Avoid possessives with compound plurals.

• My father-in-law's BMW is really fun to drive.
• The forest ranger's truck is painted an ugly shade of green.
• Your neighborhood letter carrier's job is more difficult than you imagine.